Chapter 23

LUDWIG, OTTO(1813-1865), German dramatist, novelist and critic, was born at Eisfeld in Thuringia, on the 11th of February 1813. His father, who was syndic of Eisfeld, died when the boy was twelve years old, and he was brought up amidst uncongenial conditions. He had devoted his leisure to poetry and music, which unfitted him for the mercantile career planned for him. The attention of the duke of Meiningen was directed to one of his musical compositions, an opera,Die Köhlerin, and Ludwig was enabled in 1839 to continue his musical studies under Mendelssohn in Leipzig. But ill-health and constitutional shyness caused him to give up a musical career, and he turned exclusively to literary studies, and wrote several stories and dramas. Of the latter,Der Erbförster(1850) attracted immediate attention as a masterly psychological study. It was followed byDie Makkabäer(1852), in which the realistic method ofDer Erbförsterwas transferred to an historicalmilieu, which allowed more brilliant colouring and a freer play of the imagination. With these tragedies, to which may be addedDie Rechte des HerzensandDas Fräulein von Scuderi, the comedyHans Frey, and an unfinished tragedy on the subject of Agnes Bernauer, Ludwig ranks immediately after Hebbel as Germany’s most notable dramatic poet at the middle of the 19th century. Meanwhile he had married and settled permanently in Dresden, where he turned his attention to fiction. He published a series of admirable stories of Thuringian life, characterized by the same attention to minute detail and careful psychological analysis as his dramas. The best of these areDie Heiteretei und ihr Widerspiel(1851), and Ludwig’s masterpiece, the powerful novel,Zwischen Himmel und Erde(1855). In hisShakespeare-Studien(not published until 1891) Ludwig showed himself a discriminating critic, with a fine insight into the hidden springs of the creative imagination. So great, however, was his enthusiasm for Shakespeare, that he was led to depreciate Schiller in a way which found little favour among his countrymen. He died at Dresden on the 25th of February 1865.

Ludwig’sGesammelte Schriftenwere published by A. Stern and E. Schmidt in 6 vols. (1891-1892); also by A. Bartels (6 vols., 1900). See A. Stern,Otto Ludwig, ein Dichterleben(1891; 2nd ed., 1906), and A. Sauer,Otto Ludwig(1893).

LUDWIGSBURG,a town in the kingdom of Württemberg, 9 m. to the N. of Stuttgart by rail and 1½ m. from the river Neckar. Pop. (1905) 23,093. It was founded and laid out at the beginning of the 18th century by the duke of Württemberg, Eberhard Louis, and was enlarged and improved by Duke Charles Eugène. Constructed as the adjunct of a palace the town bears the impress of its origin, with its straight streets and spacious squares. It is now mainly important as the chief military depot in Württemberg. The royal palace, one of the finest in Germany, stands in a beautiful park and contains a portrait gallery and the burial vault of the rulers of Württemberg. The industries include the manufacture of organs and pianos, of cotton, woollen and linen goods, of chemicals, iron and wire goods, and brewing and brick-making. In the vicinity is the beautiful royal residence of Monrepos, which is connected with the park of Ludwigsburg by a fine avenue of lime trees. From 1758 to1824 the town was famous for the production of a special kind of porcelain.

See Belschner,Ludwigsburg in zwei Jahrhunderten(Ludwigsburg, 1904).

LUDWIGSHAFEN,a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the left bank of the Rhine, immediately opposite to Mannheim, with which it is connected by a steam ferry and a railway bridge. Pop. (1885) 21,042, (1900) 61,905, (1905) 72,168. It has an increasing trade in iron, timber, coal and agricultural products, a trade which is fostered by a harbour opened in 1897; and also large factories for making aniline dyes and soda. Other industries are the manufacture of cellulose, artificial manure, flour and malt; and there are saw-mills, iron foundries and breweries in the town. The place, which was founded in 1843 by Louis I., king of Bavaria, was only made a town in 1859.

See J. Esselborn,Geschichte der Stadt Ludwigshafen(Ludwigshafen, 1888).

LUDWIGSLUST,a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 22 m. by rail S. by E. of Schwerin. Pop. (1905) 6728. The castle was built by the duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Frederick II., in 1772-1776. There is also another ducal residence, a fine park and a monument of the grand duke, Frederick Francis I. (d. 1837). The town has a church constructed on the model of a Greek temple. It has manufactures of chemicals and other small industries. Ludwigslust was founded by the duke Frederick, being named after this duke’s father, Christian Louis II. It became a town in 1876.

LUG,a verb meaning to pull a heavy object, to drag, now mainly used colloquially. It is probably Scandinavian in origin; the Swedishlugg, forelock, lock of hair, giveslugga, to pull, tug; and “lug” in some north-eastern English dialects is still chiefly used in the sense of pulling a person’s hair. “Luggage,” passengers’ baggage, means by origin that which has to be “lugged” about. The Scandinavian word may be also the source of “lug,” in the sense of “ear,” in Scotland the regular dialectical word, and in English commonly applied to the ear-shaped handles of metal or earthenware pots, pitchers, &c. If so the word means something that can be pulled or tugged. This is also possibly the origin of the “lug” or “lug-sail,” a four-sided sail attached to a yard which is hung obliquely to the mast, whence probably the name “lugger” of a sailing-vessel with two or three masts and fore and aft lug-sails. The word may, however, be connected with the Dutchlogger, a fishing-boat using drag-nets. “Lug” is also the name of a marine worm,Arenicola marina, used as bait.

LUGANO(Ger.Lauis), the most populous and most thriving town in the Swiss canton of Ticino or Tessin, situated (906 ft.) on the northern shore of the lake of Lugano. Pop. (1900) 9394, almost all Italian-speaking and Romanists. To the S. it is dominated by the Monte Salvatore (3004 ft.) and on the S.E. (across the lake) by the Monte Generoso (5591 ft.)—a magnificent view point. Both mountains are accessible by railways. By rail Lugano is 124 m. from Lucerne and 51½ m. from Milan. Situated on the main St Gotthard railway line, Lugano is now easily reached, so that it is much frequented by visitors (largely German) in spring and in autumn. Though politically Swiss since 1512, Lugano is thoroughly Italian in appearance and character. Of recent years many improvements have been made in the town, which has two important suburbs—Paradiso to the south and Cassarate to the east. The railway station (1109 ft.) is above the town, and is connected with the fine quays by a funicular railway. On the main quay is a statue of William Tell by the sculptor Vincenzo Vela (1820-1891), a native of the town, while other works by him are in the gardens of private villas in the neighbourhood. The principal church, San Lorenzo, in part dates back earlier than the 15th century, while its richly sculptured façade bears the figures 1517. This church is now the cathedral church of the bishop of Lugano, a see erected in 1888, with jurisdiction over the Italian parts of Switzerland. The church of Santa Maria degli Angioli, built about 1499, and till 1848 occupied by Franciscans, contains several very fine frescoes (particularly a Crucifixion) painted 1529-1530 by Bernardino Luini. A gallery containing modern pictures has been built on the site of the old palace of the bishops of Como. During the struggle of 1848-1866 to expel the Austrians from Lombardy, Lugano served as headquarters for Mazzini and his followers. Books and tracts intended for distribution in Italy were produced there and at Capolago (9 m. distant, at the S.E. end of the lake), and the efforts of the Austrian police to prevent their circulation were completely powerless.

(W. A. B. C.)

LUGANO, LAKE OF(also calledCeresio), one of the smaller lakes in Lombardy, N. Italy, lying between Lago Maggiore (W.) and the Lake of Como (E). It is of very irregular shape, the great promontory of Monte Salvatore (3004 ft.) nearly cutting off the western arm from the main lake. The whole lake has an area of 19½ sq. m., its greatest length is about 22 m., its greatest width 2 m., and its greatest depth 945 ft., while its surface is 899 ft. above sea-level. Between Melide (S. of the town of Lugano) and Maroggia (on the east shore) the lake is so shallow that a great stone dam has been built across for the St Gotthard railway line and the carriage road. The chief town is Lugano (at its northern end), which by the St Gotthard line is 19 m. from Bellinzona and 9 m. from Capolago, the station at the south-eastern extremity of the lake, which is but 8 m. by rail from Como. At the south-western extremity a railway leads S.W. from Porto Ceresio to Varese (9 m.). Porlezza, at the east end of the lake, is 8 m. by rail from Menaggio on the Lake of Como, while Ponte Tresa, at the west end of the lake, is about the same distance by a steam tramway from Luino on Lago Maggiore. Of the total area of the lake, about 7½ sq. m. are in the Swiss Canton of Ticino (Tessin), formed in 1803 out of the conquests made by the Swiss from the Milanese in 1512. The remainder of the area is in Italy. The lake lies among the outer spurs of the Alps that divide the Ticino (Tessin) basin from that of the Adda, where the calcareous strata have been disturbed by the intrusion of porphyry and other igneous rocks. It is not connected with any considerable valley, but is fed by numerous torrents issuing from short glens in the surrounding mountains, while it is drained by the Tresa, an unimportant stream flowing into Lago Maggiore. The first steamer was placed on the lake in 1856.

(W. A. B. C.)

LUGANSK(alsoLugańandLuganskiy Zavōd), a town of southern Russia, in the government of Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1900) 34,175. It has a technical railway school and a meteorological observatory, stands on the small river Lugan, 10 m. from its confluence with the northern Donets, in the Lugan mining district, 213 m. E. of the city of Ekaterinoslav, and has prospered greatly since 1890. This district, which comprises the coal-mines of Lisichansk and the anthracite mines of Gorodishche, occupies about 110,000 acres on the banks of the Donets river. Although it is mentioned in the 16th century, and coal was discovered there at the time of Peter the Great, it was not until 1795 that an Englishman, Gascoyne or Gaskoin, established its first iron-works for supplying the Black Sea fleet and the southern fortresses with guns and shot. This proved a failure, owing to the great distance from the sea; but during the Crimean War the iron-works of Lugan again produced shot, shell and gun-carriages. Since 1864 agricultural implements, steam-engines, and machinery for beetroot sugar-works, distilleries, &c., have been the chief manufactures. There is an active trade in cattle, tallow, wools, skins, linseed, wine, corn and manufactured wares.

LUGARD, SIR FREDERICK JOHN DEALTRY(1858- ), British soldier, African explorer and administrator, son of the Rev. F. G. Lugard, was born on the 22nd of January 1858. He entered the army in 1878, joining the Norfolk regiment. He served in the Afghan War of 1879-80, in the Sudan campaign of 1884-85, and in Burma in 1886-87. In May 1888, while on temporary half-pay, he took command of an expedition organized by the British settlers in Nyasaland against the Arab slave traders on Lake Nyasa, and was severely wounded. He left Nyasaland in April 1889, and in the same year was engaged by the ImperialBritish East Africa Company. In their service he explored the Sabaki river and the neighbouring region, and elaborated a scheme for the emancipation of the slaves held by the Arabs in the Zanzibar mainland. In 1890 he was sent by the company to Uganda, where he secured British predominance and put an end to the civil disturbances, though not without severe fighting, chiefly notable for an unprovoked attack by the “French” on the “British” faction. While administering Uganda he journeyed round Ruwenzori to Albert Edward Nyanza, mapping a large area of the country. He also visited Albert Nyanza, and brought away some thousands of Sudanese who had been left there by Emin Pasha and H. M. Stanley. In 1892 Lugard returned to England, where he successfully opposed the abandonment of Uganda by Great Britain, a step then contemplated by the fourth Gladstone administration. In 1894 Lugard was despatched by the Royal Niger Company to Borgu, where, distancing his French and German rivals in a country up to then unvisited by any Europeans, he secured treaties with the kings and chiefs acknowledging the sovereignty of the British company. In 1896-1897 he took charge of an expedition to Lake Ngami on behalf of the British West Charterland Company. From Ngami he was recalled by the British government and sent to West Africa, where he was commissioned to raise a native force to protect British interests in the hinterland of Lagos and Nigeria against French aggression. In August 1897 he raised the West African Frontier Force, and commanded it until the end of December 1899. The differences with France were then composed, and, the Royal Niger Company having surrendered its charter, Lugard was chosen as high commissioner of Northern Nigeria. The part of Northern Nigeria under effective control was small, and Lugard’s task in organizing this vast territory was rendered more difficult by the refusal of the sultan of Sokoto and many other Fula princes to fulfil their treaty obligations. In 1903 a successful campaign against the emir of Kano and the sultan of Sokoto rendered the extension of British control over the whole protectorate possible, and when in September 1906 he resigned his commissionership, the whole country was being peacefully administered under the supervision of British residents (seeNigeria). In April 1907 he was appointed governor of Hong-Kong. Lugard was created a C.B. in 1895 and a K.C.M.G. in 1901. He became a colonel in 1905, and held the local rank of brigadier-general. He married in 1902 Flora Louise Shaw (daughter of Major-General George Shaw, C.B., R.A.), who for some years had been a distinguished writer on colonial subjects forThe Times. Sir Frederick (then Captain) Lugard published in 1893The Rise of our East African Empire(partly autobiographical), and was the author of various valuable reports on Northern Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office. Throughout his African administrations Lugard sought strenuously to secure the amelioration of the condition of the native races, among other means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of alcoholic liquors, and by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery.

LUGO,a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from the old province of Galicia, and bounded N. by the Atlantic, E. by Oviedo and Leon, S. by Orense, and W. by Pontevedra and Corunna. Pop. (1900) 465,386; area, 3814 sq. m. The coast, which extends for about 40 m. from the estuary of Rivadéo to Cape de Vares, is extremely rugged and inaccessible, and few of the inlets, except those of Rivadéo and Vivero, admit large vessels. The province, especially in the north and east, is mountainous, being traversed by the Cantabrian chain and its offshoots; the sierra which separates it from Leon attains in places a height of 6000 ft. A large part of the area is drained by the Miño. This river, formed by the meeting of many smaller streams in the northern half of the province, follows a southerly direction until joined by the Sil, which for a considerable distance forms the southern boundary. Of the rivers flowing north into the Atlantic, the most important are the Navia, which has its lower course through Oviedo; the Eo, for some distance the boundary between the two provinces; the Masma, the Oro and the Landrove.

Some of the valleys of Lugo are fertile, and yield not only corn but fruit and wine. The principal agricultural wealth, however, is on the Miño and Sil, where rye, maize, wheat, flax, hemp and a little silk are produced. Agriculture is in a very backward condition, mainly owing to the extreme division of land that prevails throughout Galicia. The exportation of cattle to Great Britain, formerly a flourishing trade, was ruined by American and Australian competition. Iron is found at Caurel and Incio, arsenic at Castroverde and Cervantes, argentiferous lead at Riotorto; but, although small quantities of iron and arsenic are exported from Rivadéo, frequent strikes and lack of transport greatly impeded the development of mining in the earlier years of the 20th century. There are also quarries of granite, marble and various kinds of slate and building-stone. The only important manufacturing industries are those connected with leather, preserves, coarse woollen and linen stuffs, timber and osier work. About 250 coasting vessels are registered at the ports, and about as many boats constitute the fishing fleet, which brings in lampreys, soles, tunny and sardines, the last two being salted and tinned for export. The means of communication are insufficient, though there are over 100 m. of first-class roads, and the railways from Madrid and northern Portugal to Corunna run through the province.

Lugo the capital (pop. 1900, 26,959) and the important towns of Chantada (15,003), Fonsagrada (17,302), Mondoñedo (10,590), Monforte (12,912), Panton (12,988), Villalba (13,572) and Vivero (12,843) are described in separate articles. The province contained in 1900 twenty-six towns of more than 7000 inhabitants, the largest being Sarria (11,998) and Saviñao (11,182). For a general description of the people and the history of this region seeGalicia.

LUGO,capital of the above Spanish province, is situated on the left bank of the river Miño and on the railway from Corunna to Madrid. Pop. (1900) 26,959. Lugo is an episcopal see, and was formerly the capital of Galicia. Suburbs have grown up round the original town, the form of which, nearly quadrangular, is defined by a massive Roman wall 30 to 40 ft. high and 20 ft. thick, with projecting semi-circular towers which numbered 85 as late as 1809, when parts of the fortifications were destroyed by the French. The wall now serves as a promenade. The Gothic cathedral, on the south side of the town, dates from the 12th century, but was modernized in the 18th, and possesses no special architectural merit. The conventual church of Santo Domingo dates from the 14th century. The principal industries are tanning, and the manufacture of linen and woollen cloth. About 1 m. S., on the left bank of the Miño, are the famous hot sulphur baths of Lugo.

Lugo (Lucus Augusti) was a flourishing city under Roman rule (c.19B.C.-A.D.409) and was made by Augustus the seat of aconventus juridicus(assize). Its sulphur baths were even then well known. It was sacked by barbarian invaders in the 5th century, and suffered greatly in the Moorish wars of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from a very early period, and itissaid to have acquired metropolitan rank in the middle of the 6th century; it is now in the archiepiscopal province of Santiago de Compostela.

LUGOS,the capital of the county of Krassó-Szörény, Hungary, 225 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,126. It is situated on both banks of the river Temes, which divides the town in two quarters, the Rumanian on the right and the German on the left bank. It is the seat of a Greek-United (Rumanian) bishop. Lugos carries on an active trade in wine, and has several important fairs, while the surrounding country, which is mountainous and well-wooded, produces large quantities of grapes and plums. Lugos was once a strongly fortified place and of greater relative importance than at present. It was the last seat of the Hungarian revolutionary government (August 1849), and the last resort of Kossuth and several other leaders of the national cause, previous to their escape to Turkey.

LUGUDUNUM,orLugdunum, an old Celtic place-name (fort or hill of the god Lugos or Lug) used by the Romans for several towns in ancient Gaul. The most important was the town at the confluence of the Saône and Rhone now called Lyons (q.v.). This place had in Roman times two elements. One was a Romancolonia(municipality of Roman citizens, self-governing) situatedon the hill near the present Fourviéres (Forum vetus). The other, territorially distinct from it for reasons of statecraft, was the Temple of Roma and Augustus, to which the inhabitants of the 64 Gallic cantons in the three Roman provinces of Aquitania, Lugudunensis and Belgica—the so-called Tres Galliae—sent delegates every summer to hold games and otherwise celebrate the worship of the emperor which was supposed to knit the provincials to Rome. The two elements together composed the most important town of western Europe in Roman times. Lugudunum controlled the trade of its two rivers, and that which passed from northern Gaul to the Mediterranean or vice versa; it had a mint; it was the capital of all northern Gaul, despite its position in the south, and its wealth was such that, when Rome was burnt in Nero’s reign, its inhabitants subscribed largely to the relief of the Eternal City.

(F. J. H.)

LUINI, BERNARDINO(?1465-?1540), the most celebrated master of the Lombard school of painting founded upon the style of Leonardo da Vinci, was born at Luino, a village on Lago Maggiore. He wrote his name as “Bernardin Lovino,” but the spelling “Luini” is now generally adopted. Few facts are known regarding his life, and until a comparatively recent date many even of his works had, in the lapse of years and laxity of attribution, got assigned to Leonardo da Vinci. It appears that Luini studied painting at Vercelli under Giovenone, or perhaps under Stephano Scotto. He reached Milan either after the departure of Da Vinci in 1500, or shortly before that event; it is thus uncertain whether or not the two artists had any personal acquaintance, but Luini was at any rate in the painting-school established in Milan by the great Florentine. In the later works of Luini a certain influence from the style of Raphael is superadded to that, far more prominent and fundamental, from the style of Leonardo; but there is nothing to show that he ever visited Rome. His two sons are the only pupils who have with confidence been assigned to him; and even this can scarcely be true of the younger, who was born in 1530, when Bernardino was well advanced in years. Guadenzio Ferrari has also been termed his disciple. One of the sons, Evangelista, has left little which can now be identified; the other, Aurelio, was accomplished in perspective and landscape work. There was likewise a brother of Bernardino, named Ambrogio, a competent painter. Bernardino, who hardly ever left Lombardy, had some merit as a poet, and is said to have composed a treatise on painting. The precise date of his death is unknown; he may perhaps have survived till about 1540. A serene, contented and happy mind, naturally expressing itself in forms of grace and beauty, seems stamped upon all the works of Luini. The same character is traceable in his portrait, painted in an upper group in his fresco of “Christ crowned with Thorns” in the Ambrosian library in Milan—a venerable bearded personage. The only anecdote which has been preserved of him tells a similar tale. It is said that for the single figures of saints in the church at Saronno he received a sum equal to 22 francs per day, along with wine, bread and lodging; and he was so well satisfied with this remuneration that, in completing the commission, he painted a Nativity for nothing.

A dignified suavity is the most marked characteristic of Luini’s works. They are constantly beautiful, with a beauty which depends at least as much upon the loving self-withdrawn expression as upon the mere refinement and attractiveness of form. This quality of expression appears in all Luini’s productions, whether secular or sacred, and imbues the latter with a peculiarly religious grace—not ecclesiastical unction, but the devoutness of the heart. His heads, while extremely like those painted by Leonardo, have less subtlety and involution and less variety of expression, but fully as much amenity. He began indeed with a somewhat dry style, as in the “Pietà” in the church of the Passione; but this soon developed into the quality which distinguishes all his most renowned works; although his execution, especially as regards modelling, was never absolutely equal to that of Leonardo. Luini’s paintings do not exhibit an impetuous style of execution, and certainly not a negligent one; yet it appears that he was in fact a very rapid worker, as his picture of the “Crowning with Thorns,” painted for the College del S. Sepolcro, and containing a large number of figures, is recorded to have occupied him only thirty-eight days, to which an assistant added eleven. His method was simple and expeditious, the shadows being painted with the pure colour laid on thick, while the lights are of the same colour thinly used, and mixed with a little white. The frescoes exhibit more freedom of hand than the oil pictures; and they are on the whole less like the work of Da Vinci, having at an early date a certain resemblance to the style of Mantegna, as later on to that of Raphael. Luini’s colouring is mostly rich, and his light and shade forcible.

Among his principal works the following are to be mentioned. At Saronno are frescoes painted towards 1525, representing the life of the Madonna—her “Marriage,” the “Presentation of the Infant Saviour in the Temple,” the “Adoration of the Magi” and other incidents. His own portrait appears in the subject of the youthful “Jesus with the Doctors in the Temple.” This series—in which some comparatively archaic details occur, such as gilded nimbuses—was partly repeated from one which Luini had executed towards 1520 in S. Croce. In the Brera Gallery, Milan, are frescoes from the suppressed church of La Pace and the Convent della Pelucca—the former treating subjects from the life of the Virgin, the latter, of a classic kind, more decorative in manner. The subject of girls playing at the game of “hot-cockles,” and that of three angels depositing St Catherine in her sepulchre, are particularly memorable, each of them a work of perfect charm and grace in its way. In the Casa Silva, Milan, are frescoes from Ovid’sMetamorphoses. The Monastero Maggiore of Milan (or church of S. Maurizio) is a noble treasure-house of Luini’s art—including a large Crucifixion, with about one hundred and forty figures; “Christ bound to the Column,” between figures of Saints Catherine and Stephen, and the founder of the chapel kneeling before Catherine; the martyrdom of this saint; the “Entombment of Christ,” and a large number of other subjects. In the Ambrosian library is the fresco (already mentioned), covering one entire wall of the Sala della S. Corona, of “Christ crowned with Thorns,” with two executioners, and on each side six members of a confraternity; in the same building the “Infant Baptist playing with a Lamb”; in the Brera, the “Virgin Enthroned, with Saints” (dated 1521); in the Louvre, the “Daughter of Herodias receiving the Head of the Baptist”; in the Esterhazy Gallery, Vienna, the “Virgin between Saints Catherine and Barbara”; in the National Gallery, London, “Christ disputing with the Doctors” (or rather, perhaps, the Pharisees). Many or most of these gallery pictures used to pass for the handiwork of Da Vinci. The same is the case with the highly celebrated “Vanity and Modesty” in the Sciarra Palace, Rome, which also may nevertheless in all probability be assigned to Luini. Another singularly beautiful picture by him is in the Royal Palace in Milan—a large composition of “Women Bathing.” That Luini was also pre-eminent as a decorative artist is shown by his works in the Certosa of Pavia.A good account of Luini by Dr G. C. Williamson was published in 1900.

A good account of Luini by Dr G. C. Williamson was published in 1900.

(W. M. R.)

LUKE,the traditional author of the third Gospel and of the Book of Acts, and the most literary among the writers of the New Testament. He alone, too, was of non-Jewish origin (Col. iv. 11, 14), a fact of great interest in relation to his writings. His name, a more familiar form of Lucanus (cf. Silas for Silvanus, Acts xvii. 4, 1 Thess. i. 1, and seeEncycl. Bibl.s.v., for instances ofΔουκᾶςon Egyptian inscriptions), taken together with his profession of physician (Col. iv. 14), suggests that he was son of a Greek freedman possibly connected with Lucania in south Italy; and as Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to all physicians in Rome (Sueton.Jul.42), Luke may even have inherited this status from his father. But in any case such a man would have the attitude to things Roman which appears in the works attributed to Luke. He was a fellow-worker of Paul’s when in Rome (Philemon 24), where he seems to have remained in constant attendance on his leader, as physician as well as attached friend (Col. iv. 14; 2 Tim. iv. 11). That Luke, before he became a Christian, was an adherent of the synagogue—not a full proselyte, but one of those “worshippers” of God to whom Acts makes frequent reference—is fairly certain from the familiarity with the Septuagint indicated in Acts, as well as from its sympathy with the Hellenistic type of piety as distinct from specific Paulinism, of which there is but little trace.

The earliest extra-biblical reference to him is perhaps in the Muratonian Canon, which implies that his name already stood in MSS. of both Gospel (probably so even in Marcion’s day) and Acts, and says that Paul took him for his companionquasi ut juris studiosum(“as being a student of law”). Herejurisis almost certainly corrupt; and whether we take the sense to havebeen “as being devoted to travel” (ut juris=itineris) or “as skilled in disease” (νόσουpassing intoνόμουin the Greek original), it is probably a mere inference from biblical data. Beyond references in Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria (cf.Hebrews) and Tertullian, which add nothing to our knowledge, we have the belief to which Origen (Hom.i.in Lucam) witnesses as existing in his day, that Luke was the “brother” of 2 Cor. viii. 18, “whose praise in the Gospel” (as preached) was “throughout all the churches.” Though the basis of the identification be a mistake, yet that this “brother,” “who was also appointed by the churches (note the generality of this) to travel with us in the matter of the charity,” was none other than Paul’s constant companion Luke is quite likely;e.g.he seems to have been almost the only non-Macedonian (as demanded by 2 Cor. ix. 2-4) of Paul’s circle available1at the time (see Acts xx. 4). Our next witness, a prologue to the Lucan writings (originally in Greek, now known only in Latin, seeNov. Test. Latine(Oxford), I. iii., II. i.), perhaps preserves a genuine tradition in stating that Luke died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four. It is hard to see why this should be fiction, which usually took the form of martyrdom, as in a later tradition touching his end. The same prologue, and indeed all early tradition, connects him originally with Antioch (see Euseb.Hist. Eccl.iii. 4, 6, possibly after Julius Africanus in the first half of the 3rd century).

That he was actually a native of Antioch is as doubtful as the statement that he was a Syrian by race (Prologue). But internal evidence bears out the view that he practised his profession in Antioch, where (or in Tarsus) he probably first met Paul. Whether any of his information in Acts as to the Gospel in Antioch (xi. 19 ff., xiii. 1 ff., xiv. 26-xv. 35) was due to an Antiochene document used by him (cf. A. Harnack,The Acts of the Apostles, 245 ff.) or not, this knowledge in any case suggests Luke’s connexion with that church. He shows, too, local knowledge on points unlikely to have stood in any such source (e.g.it was in Antioch that the name “Christians” was first coined, xi. 26), which points to his share in early Church life there. The Bezan reading in Acts xi. 27, “whenwewere assembled,” may imply memory of this.But while Luke probably met Paul in Antioch, and thence started with him on his second great missionary enterprise (xv. 36 ff.), partly at least as his medical attendant (cf. Gal. iv. 13), it is possible that he had also some special connexion with the north-eastern part of the Aegean. Sir W. M. Ramsay and others fancy that Luke’s original home was Philippi, and that in fact he may have been the “certain Macedonian” seen in vision by Paul at Troas, inviting help for his countrymen (xvi. 9 f.). But this is as precarious as the view that, because “we” ceases at Philippi in xvi. 17, and then reemerges in xx. 6, Luke must have resided there during all the interval. The use and disuse of the first person plural, identifying Paul and his party, has probably a more subtle and psychological2meaning (seeActs). The local connexion in question may have been subsequent to that with Antioch, dating from his work with Paul in the province of Asia, and being resumed after Paul’s martyrdom. This accords at once with Harnack’s argument that Luke wrote Acts in Asia3(Luke the Physician, p. 149 ff.), and with the early tradition, above cited, that he died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four, without ever having married (this touch may be due to an ascetic feeling current already in the 2nd century).The later traditions about Luke’s life are based on fanciful inference or misunderstanding,e.g.that he was one of the Seventy (AdamantiusDial. de recta fide, 4th century), or the story (in Theodorus Lector, 6th century) that he painted a portrait of the Virgin Mother. But a good deal can still be gathered by sympathetic study of his writings as to the manner of man he was. It was a beautiful soul from which came “the most beautiful book” ever written, as Renan styled his Gospel. The selection of stories which he gives us—especially in the section mainly peculiar to himself (ix. 51-xviii. 14)—reflects his own character as well as that of the source he mainly follows. His was indeed areligio mediciin its pity for frail and suffering humanity, and in its sympathy with the triumph of the Divine “healing art” upon the bodies and souls of men (cf. Harnack,The Acts,Excursus, iii.). His was also a humane4spirit, a spirit so tender that it saw further than almost any save the Master himself into the soul of womanhood. In this, as in his joyousness, united with a feeling for the poor and suffering, he was an early Francis of Assisi. Luke, “the physician, the beloved physician,” that was Paul’s characterization of him; and it is the impression which his writings have left on humanity. How great his contribution to Christianity has been, in virtue of what he alone preserved of the historical Jesus and of the embodiment of his Gospel in his earliest followers, who can measure? Harnack even maintains (The Acts, p. 301) that his story of the Apostolic age was the indispensable condition for the incorporation of the Pauline epistles in the Church’s canon of New Testament scriptures. Certainly his conception of the Gospel, viz. a Christian Hellenistic universalism (with some slight infusion of Pauline thought) passed through a Graeco-Roman mind, proved more easy of assimilation, and so more directly influential for the ancient Church, than Paul’s own distinctive teaching (ib. 281 ff.; cf.Luke the Physician, pp. 139-145).Literature.—Introductions to commentaries like A. Plummer’s on Luke’s Gospel in the “Intern. Crit.” series, R. B. Rackham’sActs of the Apostles(“Oxford Comm.”); the article “Luke” in Hastings’sDict. of the BibleandDict. of Christ and the Gospels, theEncycl. Biblicaand Hauck’sRealencyklopädie, vol. xi.; Sir W. M. Ramsay’sPaul the TravellerandPauline and other Studies, and A. Harnack’sLukas der Arzt(1906, Eng. trans. 1907) andDie Apostelgeschichte(1908, Eng. trans. 1909). For the Luke of legend, see authorities quoted underMark.

But while Luke probably met Paul in Antioch, and thence started with him on his second great missionary enterprise (xv. 36 ff.), partly at least as his medical attendant (cf. Gal. iv. 13), it is possible that he had also some special connexion with the north-eastern part of the Aegean. Sir W. M. Ramsay and others fancy that Luke’s original home was Philippi, and that in fact he may have been the “certain Macedonian” seen in vision by Paul at Troas, inviting help for his countrymen (xvi. 9 f.). But this is as precarious as the view that, because “we” ceases at Philippi in xvi. 17, and then reemerges in xx. 6, Luke must have resided there during all the interval. The use and disuse of the first person plural, identifying Paul and his party, has probably a more subtle and psychological2meaning (seeActs). The local connexion in question may have been subsequent to that with Antioch, dating from his work with Paul in the province of Asia, and being resumed after Paul’s martyrdom. This accords at once with Harnack’s argument that Luke wrote Acts in Asia3(Luke the Physician, p. 149 ff.), and with the early tradition, above cited, that he died in Bithynia at the age of seventy-four, without ever having married (this touch may be due to an ascetic feeling current already in the 2nd century).

The later traditions about Luke’s life are based on fanciful inference or misunderstanding,e.g.that he was one of the Seventy (AdamantiusDial. de recta fide, 4th century), or the story (in Theodorus Lector, 6th century) that he painted a portrait of the Virgin Mother. But a good deal can still be gathered by sympathetic study of his writings as to the manner of man he was. It was a beautiful soul from which came “the most beautiful book” ever written, as Renan styled his Gospel. The selection of stories which he gives us—especially in the section mainly peculiar to himself (ix. 51-xviii. 14)—reflects his own character as well as that of the source he mainly follows. His was indeed areligio mediciin its pity for frail and suffering humanity, and in its sympathy with the triumph of the Divine “healing art” upon the bodies and souls of men (cf. Harnack,The Acts,Excursus, iii.). His was also a humane4spirit, a spirit so tender that it saw further than almost any save the Master himself into the soul of womanhood. In this, as in his joyousness, united with a feeling for the poor and suffering, he was an early Francis of Assisi. Luke, “the physician, the beloved physician,” that was Paul’s characterization of him; and it is the impression which his writings have left on humanity. How great his contribution to Christianity has been, in virtue of what he alone preserved of the historical Jesus and of the embodiment of his Gospel in his earliest followers, who can measure? Harnack even maintains (The Acts, p. 301) that his story of the Apostolic age was the indispensable condition for the incorporation of the Pauline epistles in the Church’s canon of New Testament scriptures. Certainly his conception of the Gospel, viz. a Christian Hellenistic universalism (with some slight infusion of Pauline thought) passed through a Graeco-Roman mind, proved more easy of assimilation, and so more directly influential for the ancient Church, than Paul’s own distinctive teaching (ib. 281 ff.; cf.Luke the Physician, pp. 139-145).

Literature.—Introductions to commentaries like A. Plummer’s on Luke’s Gospel in the “Intern. Crit.” series, R. B. Rackham’sActs of the Apostles(“Oxford Comm.”); the article “Luke” in Hastings’sDict. of the BibleandDict. of Christ and the Gospels, theEncycl. Biblicaand Hauck’sRealencyklopädie, vol. xi.; Sir W. M. Ramsay’sPaul the TravellerandPauline and other Studies, and A. Harnack’sLukas der Arzt(1906, Eng. trans. 1907) andDie Apostelgeschichte(1908, Eng. trans. 1909). For the Luke of legend, see authorities quoted underMark.

(J. V. B.)

1Tychicus may be the other “brother,” in viii. 22.2So also A. Hilgenfeld,Zeit. f. theol. Wissenschaft(1907), p. 214, argues that “we” marks the author’s wish to give his narrative more vividness at great turning-points of the story—the passage from Asia to Europe, and again the real beginning of the solemn progress of Paul towards the crisis in Jerusalem, as yet later towards Rome, xxvii. 1 ff.3Note that Luke is at pains to explain why Paul passed by Asia and Bithynia in the first instance (xvi. 6 f.).4Compare what A. W. Verrall has said of the poet Statius and “the gentle doctrine of humanity” on Hellenic soil, as embodied in his description of The Altar of Mercy at Athens (Oxford and Cambridge Review, i. 101 ff.).

1Tychicus may be the other “brother,” in viii. 22.

2So also A. Hilgenfeld,Zeit. f. theol. Wissenschaft(1907), p. 214, argues that “we” marks the author’s wish to give his narrative more vividness at great turning-points of the story—the passage from Asia to Europe, and again the real beginning of the solemn progress of Paul towards the crisis in Jerusalem, as yet later towards Rome, xxvii. 1 ff.

3Note that Luke is at pains to explain why Paul passed by Asia and Bithynia in the first instance (xvi. 6 f.).

4Compare what A. W. Verrall has said of the poet Statius and “the gentle doctrine of humanity” on Hellenic soil, as embodied in his description of The Altar of Mercy at Athens (Oxford and Cambridge Review, i. 101 ff.).

LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST,the third of the four canonical Gospels of the Christian Church.

1.Authorship and Date.—The earliest indication which we possess of the belief that the author was Luke, the companion of the Apostle Paul (Col. iv. 14; Philem. 24; 2 Tim. iv. 11), is found in Justin Martyr, who, in hisDialogue with Trypho(c.103), when making a statement found only in our Luke, instead of referring for it simply to the “Apostolic Memoirs,” his usual formula, says that it is contained in the memoirs composed by “the Apostles andthose that followed them.” But the first distinct mention of Luke as the author of the Gospel is that by Irenaeus in his famous passage about the Four Gospels (Adv. Haer.III. i. 2,c.A.D.180).

This tradition is important in spite of the fact that it first comes clearly before us in a writer belonging to the latter part of the 2nd century, because the prominence and fame of Luke were not such as would of themselves have led to his being singled out to have a Gospel attributed to him. The question of the authorship cannot, however, be decided without considering the internal evidence, the interpretation of which in the case of the Third Gospel and the Acts (the other writing attributed to Luke) is a matter of peculiar interest. It is generally admitted that the same person is the author of both works in their present form. This is intimated at the beginning of the second of them (Acts i. 1); and both are marked, broadly speaking throughout, though in some parts much more strongly than in others, by stylistic characteristics which we may conveniently call “Lucan” without making a premature assumption as to the authorship. The writer is more versed than any other New Testament writer except the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and very much more than most of them, in the literary Greek of the period of the rise of Christianity; and he has, also, like other writers, his favourite words, turns of expression and thoughts. The variations in the degree to which these appear in different passages are in the main to be accounted for by his having before him in many cases documents or oral reports, which he reproduces with only slight alterations in the language, while at other times he is writing freely.

We have next to observe that there are four sections in Acts (xvi. 9-17, xx. 4-16, xxi. 1-17, xxvii. 1-xxviii. 16) in which the first person plural is used. Now it is again generally admitted that in these sections we have the genuine account of one who was a member of Paul’s company, who may well have been Luke. But it has been and is still held by many critics that the author of Acts is a different person, and that as in the Third Gospel he has used documents for the Life of Christ, and perhaps also in the earlier half of the Acts for the history of the beginnings of the Christian Church, so in the “we” sections, and possibly in some other portions of this narrative of Paul’s missionary life, he has used a kind of travel-diary by one who accompanied the Apostleon some of his journeys. That neither this, nor any other, companion of Paul can have been the author of the whole work is supposed to follow both from its theological temper and from discrepancies between its statements and those of the Pauline Epistles on matters of fact.

A careful examination, however, of the “we” sections shows that words and expressions characteristic of the author of the third Gospel and the Acts are found in them to an extent which is very remarkable, and that in many instances they belong to the very texture of the passages. This linguistic evidence, which is of quite unusual force, has never yet been fairly faced by those who deny Luke’s authorship of Acts. Moreover, the difficulties in the way of supposing that the author of Acts could at an earlier period of his life have been a companion of St Paul do not seem to be so serious as some critics think. Indeed it is easier to explain some of the differences between the Acts and St Paul’s Epistles on this assumption than on that of authorship by a writer who would have felt more dependent upon the information which might be gathered from those Epistles, and who would have been more likely to have had a collection of them at hand, if his work was composedc.A.D.100, as is commonly assumed by critics who reject the authorship by Luke.

There is then strong reason for believing the tradition that Luke, the companion of the Apostle Paul, was the author of our third Gospel and the Acts. Another argument in support of this belief, upon which much reliance has been placed, is found in the descriptions of diseases, and the words common in Greek medical writers, contained in these two works. These, it is said, point to the author’s having been a physician, as Luke (Col. iv. 14) was (see esp. Hobart,The Medical Language of St Luke, 1882). The instances alleged are, many of them at least, not very distinctive. Yet they have some value as confirming the conclusion based on a comparison of the “we” sections of the Acts, with the remainder of the two books.

If we may assume that the writer who uses the first person plural in Acts xvi. 10 sqq. was the author of the two works, they can hardly have been composed later thanA.D.96; he would then have been about 65 years old, even if he was a very young man when he first joined the Apostle. An earlier date thanA.D.96 cannot be assigned if it is held that his writings show acquaintance with theAntiquities of the Jewish Peopleby Josephus. The grounds for supposing this appear, however, to be wholly insufficient (see article on Acts by Bishop Lightfoot in 2nd ed. of Smith’sDict. of Bible, p. 39) and it is not easy to see why he should have deferred writing so long. On the other hand, a comparison of Luke xxi. 20-24 with Mark xiii. 14 seq. seems to show that in using his document Luke here mingled with the prophecy the interpretation which events had suggested and that the siege of Jerusalem inA.D.70 and dispersion of its inhabitants had already taken place some little time before.CircaA.D.80 may with probability be given as the time of the composition of his Gospel.

2.Contents, Sources and Arrangement.—In the preface to his Gospel, i. 1-4, Luke alludes to other Gospel-records which preceded his own. He does not say whether he made any use of them, but he seems to imply that his own was more complete. And this was true in regard to the two which, from a comparison of his Gospel with the other two Synoptics, we know that he did use. These we may call his Marcan and his Logian document. Luke also claims that he has written “in order.” The instances in which he has departed from the Marcan order, and the manner in which he has introduced his additional matter into the Marcan outline, do not suggest the idea that he had any independent knowledge of an exact kind of the chronological sequence of events. By the phrase “in order” he may himself have intended chiefly to contrast the orderliness and consecutiveness of his account with the necessarily fragmentary character of the catechetical instruction which Theophilus had received. He may, also, have had in view the fact that he has prefixed a narrative of the birth and infancy of Jesus and of John and so begun the history at what he considered to be its true point of departure; to this he plainly alludes when he says that he has “traced the course of all things accurately from the first.” He may, also, in part be thinking of those indications which he—and he alone among the evangelists—has given of the points in the course of secular history at which Jesus was born and the Baptist began to preach (ii. 1-3, iii. 1, 2), though it may be doubted whether these are in all respects accurate.

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